EDT 8110 - Week #4
Smart Learning Objectives
Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Results-focused - Time-focused
After completing this unit students will be able to the following:
1. Describe three reasons from biology that indicate the brain is not a static organ.
2. Explain the multiplier effect for intelligence.
3. List and describe three methods for increasing cognitive performance.
4. List seven methods students can use to improve their study habits.
Content Summary:
The material in this web page is derived from three sources, the seventh and eighth chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014), a Youtube video of a presentation by Carol Dweck (Dweck, 2013) and an article by Pooja Agarwal, Henry Roediger, Mark McDaniel, and Kathleen McDermott available online (Agarwal et al., 2013).
The material in this web page is derived from three sources, the seventh and eighth chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014), a Youtube video of a presentation by Carol Dweck (Dweck, 2013) and an article by Pooja Agarwal, Henry Roediger, Mark McDaniel, and Kathleen McDermott available online (Agarwal et al., 2013).
Chapter 7
Brain Development
Our brain at birth, like the rest of our body, was not fully formed. During infancy and adolescence our body increased greatly in size while our brain underwent massive changes in its internal structure. During this brain development, the cells which communicate with each other, the neurons, increased in number, reaching 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) by the time we were only two years old. However, what is probably more important, the number of communication connections these cells are made with each other also increased so that each cell connected on average to 1000 other cells. This is equivalent to 100,000,000,000,000 (100 trillion) individual connections.
But it doesn’t stop there. Our brains continue to make new nerve cells throughout our lives and remodel the connections that each cell makes to others. A major remodeling occurs during our adolescence years, particularly in the frontal cortex, a brain region responsible for judgment and higher “executive” functions (Society for Neuroscience, Brain Facts, 2008). This can include pruning back of connections already made, expansion of connections to new cells, or changing the strength of the connections. Thus, while the major features of the brain are defined by our genes, the continuing development and changes in brain cell connections means that the brain is constantly in a changeable state. It is not a static structure.
Brain Development
Our brain at birth, like the rest of our body, was not fully formed. During infancy and adolescence our body increased greatly in size while our brain underwent massive changes in its internal structure. During this brain development, the cells which communicate with each other, the neurons, increased in number, reaching 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) by the time we were only two years old. However, what is probably more important, the number of communication connections these cells are made with each other also increased so that each cell connected on average to 1000 other cells. This is equivalent to 100,000,000,000,000 (100 trillion) individual connections.
But it doesn’t stop there. Our brains continue to make new nerve cells throughout our lives and remodel the connections that each cell makes to others. A major remodeling occurs during our adolescence years, particularly in the frontal cortex, a brain region responsible for judgment and higher “executive” functions (Society for Neuroscience, Brain Facts, 2008). This can include pruning back of connections already made, expansion of connections to new cells, or changing the strength of the connections. Thus, while the major features of the brain are defined by our genes, the continuing development and changes in brain cell connections means that the brain is constantly in a changeable state. It is not a static structure.
We now know that, like our changing brain, our also IQ is not static (Brown, Roediger and McDaniel, 2014). It can be modified by a variety of environmental factors. For example, living in an environment with more stimuli and receiving better nutrition will lead to a higher IQ. There also are certain factors which lead to so-called multiplier effects for cognitive abilities. A smart child will be likely to get smarter because of an inherent tendency to learn, perhaps driven by her innate curiosity.
Brain training exercises also can be beneficial to improve certain aspects of cognitive abilities. Small studies with highly selected subjects have shown that the capacity for working memory, the amount of information one can hold for immediate retrieval, can be increased by certain training exercises. However, the durability of the effect, the long-term change in working memory capacity this may create has not been determined.
So, since our genetics is fixed and our major part of brain development is completed, what can be done to improve our cognitive performance? There are three things, developing a growth mindset, deliberate practice, and developing memory methods.
Brain training exercises also can be beneficial to improve certain aspects of cognitive abilities. Small studies with highly selected subjects have shown that the capacity for working memory, the amount of information one can hold for immediate retrieval, can be increased by certain training exercises. However, the durability of the effect, the long-term change in working memory capacity this may create has not been determined.
So, since our genetics is fixed and our major part of brain development is completed, what can be done to improve our cognitive performance? There are three things, developing a growth mindset, deliberate practice, and developing memory methods.
Developing a Growth Mindset Understanding that IQ and cognitive performance is not a fixed condition will eliminate barriers for intellectual improvement (Brown et al., 2014, Dweck, 2013). This mindset can be influenced by how feedback is given during training and education. One who receives praise for solving a problem or getting the correct answer may develop a tendency to avoid situations in which they may fail. When they do fail at something, they will feel helpless. This would stifle their intellectual development since their horizons would tend not to be broadened. Their goal is limited to their performance – failure or success. In contrast, someone who receives praise for the effort they put into working on the problem will feel accomplished by the work done regardless of the outcome. When they fail at something, they will look for another approach to solve the problem. Their motivation is to work hard to reach the goal.
Deliberate Practice. Anders Erickson (cited in Brown et al., 2014) has determined that 10 years of consistent practice is necessary to master any subject or activity. This practice is typically of a solitary nature and highly introspective. It is not mindless repetition of things that are already known, but rather expanding your abilities by taking on new challenges. Often these experts have coaches or trainers who can evaluate what aspects of the performance or knowledge needs additional work.
Memory Cues. Various memory devices can be used to organize things that must be remembered for easy retrieval. These memory cues are useful to remember facts, but not the concepts behind them.
For example simple mnemonics are often used to remember a list of related things. “On old olympus’ towering tops a Finn and German viewed some hops” is used to memorize the names of the 12 cranial nerves; olfactory, optic, oculomotor, troclear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, hypoglossal. A separate mnemonic is used to remember the function of each nerve (sensory or motor).
More complex entities can be memorized by using memory palaces; a series of physical places where reference objects are placed in your mind’s eye, each one pertaining to one aspect of the entity. This complex imagery improves the connective links to our memory because we remember pictures better than we remember words.
The peg method for memory uses a rhyming scheme to parallel what you want to memorize with a well known list such as the number sequence from 1 to 10. One rhymes with bun and two rhymes with moo, which may remind you to pick up dinner rolls and milk at the market.
For example simple mnemonics are often used to remember a list of related things. “On old olympus’ towering tops a Finn and German viewed some hops” is used to memorize the names of the 12 cranial nerves; olfactory, optic, oculomotor, troclear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, hypoglossal. A separate mnemonic is used to remember the function of each nerve (sensory or motor).
More complex entities can be memorized by using memory palaces; a series of physical places where reference objects are placed in your mind’s eye, each one pertaining to one aspect of the entity. This complex imagery improves the connective links to our memory because we remember pictures better than we remember words.
The peg method for memory uses a rhyming scheme to parallel what you want to memorize with a well known list such as the number sequence from 1 to 10. One rhymes with bun and two rhymes with moo, which may remind you to pick up dinner rolls and milk at the market.
Chapter 8
Practical Application
How we apply the techniques for “making it stick” in our lives depends on our place in education, student, teacher, or trainer.
As a student or an adult life-long learner each of the methods described in previous weeks can be used (Brown et al., 2014).
Practical Application
How we apply the techniques for “making it stick” in our lives depends on our place in education, student, teacher, or trainer.
As a student or an adult life-long learner each of the methods described in previous weeks can be used (Brown et al., 2014).
- Retrieval practice. Generate self quizzes and work the study questions provided in text books. Do not spend time underlining or re-reading as this gives only an illusion of knowing through fluency of the text (Agarwal, Roediger, McDaniel, and McDermot, 2013).
- Space it out. Come back to study material you already know after working on the new material. Interleave the old with the new. Do not work single mindedly on a subject.
- Elaborate. Explain what you know to someone else or apply what you have learned to your own life. Develop a metaphor for the new knowledge that is easily relatable to your previous experiences.
- Generate. Try to answer a questions before you have all the information needed.
- Reflect. Be introspective about your learning. Think about what you know and what you don’t know.
- Calibrate. Get feedback and learn from it. This will inform your reflection and align it to reality.
- Mnemonics. Develop memory cues for important facts.
As a teacher there are ways to incorporate these learning methods in the classroom. However, since these methods are a significant departure from many traditional classroom styles, it is important to inform the students what you are doing and why. For example, explain that the many quizzes you may give are less for assessment and more for practicing their ability to recall information they have already learned. The methods will be more difficult, but the learning will be deeper and more efficient. Then incorporate all seven of the methods described above for student learning. The goal for all of these is to create desirable difficulties to enhance the students’ learning and retention (Brown et al., 2014).
There are various activities others have used in the classroom to incorporate these learning methods. Creating testing groups (as opposed to study groups) where students work together to come up with a solution to a problem. Ask students to recall all that they remember at the end of a class period by writing it down on a sheet of paper without access to their notes or texts. Have students create summary sheets of ideas and relations or write short paragraphs about some key concepts. Finally teach the students the basics of Blooms Taxonomy of learning and have them evaluate how their answers fit on this list. This will focus them to become reflective of their learning.
There are various activities others have used in the classroom to incorporate these learning methods. Creating testing groups (as opposed to study groups) where students work together to come up with a solution to a problem. Ask students to recall all that they remember at the end of a class period by writing it down on a sheet of paper without access to their notes or texts. Have students create summary sheets of ideas and relations or write short paragraphs about some key concepts. Finally teach the students the basics of Blooms Taxonomy of learning and have them evaluate how their answers fit on this list. This will focus them to become reflective of their learning.
As trainers, throw out the Power Point presentations and revamp the material to provide periodic questions and quizzes which afford retrieval practice. Have the trainees, work out their own solutions to complex problems by identifying the knowledge needed, discovering how to obtain the needed training, and developing expertise through training and retrieval practice. Where multiple members are interacting with different jobs to achieve a solution, each member of the group should know the responsibilities and job requirements of every other member.
Connection to the Field and/or Discipline
Medical and graduate students must learn a vast array of information on numerous subjects. Typically the core information provided in classes is grouped by scientific subject, e.g. anatomy, histology, pharmacology, biochemistry. Increasingly, some courses are becoming integrated by body system. In neuroscience courses, students must become acquainted with all of these disciplines as they apply to the brain and nervous system. This can provide a spacing and interleaving of the material throughout the course period. For each new aspect of study, materials already covered would need to be remembered and incorporated with the new information.
Along with this reorganization of course material, it would be a benefit for students to have a course on how to study at the beginning of their first year in graduate or medical school. The course could describe the seven techniques for efficient study as described above.
Suggestions for Implementation
After completing core courses, graduate students in the sciences spend study time reading primary literature in their field. There are several means by which mentors can help students improve their knowledge base and cognitive abilities relevant to a career in science. To facilitate learning in this period of their training, mentors can quiz students on the content of their literature reading. This exercise will provide retrieval practice for the student, an assessment of the student's strengths and weaknesses for the mentor. With this, the mentor can provide feedback for the student through which they can calibrate their reflection of their knowledge base. Synthesis of information and creation of new approaches to problems is central for a science career. To develop these traits in students, mentors can ask students to generate new ideas from the readings they have done and the knowledge they already possess.
Medical and graduate students must learn a vast array of information on numerous subjects. Typically the core information provided in classes is grouped by scientific subject, e.g. anatomy, histology, pharmacology, biochemistry. Increasingly, some courses are becoming integrated by body system. In neuroscience courses, students must become acquainted with all of these disciplines as they apply to the brain and nervous system. This can provide a spacing and interleaving of the material throughout the course period. For each new aspect of study, materials already covered would need to be remembered and incorporated with the new information.
Along with this reorganization of course material, it would be a benefit for students to have a course on how to study at the beginning of their first year in graduate or medical school. The course could describe the seven techniques for efficient study as described above.
Suggestions for Implementation
After completing core courses, graduate students in the sciences spend study time reading primary literature in their field. There are several means by which mentors can help students improve their knowledge base and cognitive abilities relevant to a career in science. To facilitate learning in this period of their training, mentors can quiz students on the content of their literature reading. This exercise will provide retrieval practice for the student, an assessment of the student's strengths and weaknesses for the mentor. With this, the mentor can provide feedback for the student through which they can calibrate their reflection of their knowledge base. Synthesis of information and creation of new approaches to problems is central for a science career. To develop these traits in students, mentors can ask students to generate new ideas from the readings they have done and the knowledge they already possess.
Formative Assessment
Provide the correct answer for the questions given in the learning exercise below.
Provide the correct answer for the questions given in the learning exercise below.
References and Additional Reading
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
Dweck, C. (2013) Mindset - the new psychology of success' at happiness & its causes. (video) retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGvR_0mNpWM
Agarwal, P.K., Roediger, H.L., McDaniel, M.A., and McDermott, K.B. How to use retrieval practice to improve learning. (article)
Society for Neuroscience, Brain Facts (2012) Critical Periods in Early Life (Web page) Retrieved from https://brainfacts.org/brain-basics/brain-development/articles/2012/critical-periods-in-early-life/
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
Dweck, C. (2013) Mindset - the new psychology of success' at happiness & its causes. (video) retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGvR_0mNpWM
Agarwal, P.K., Roediger, H.L., McDaniel, M.A., and McDermott, K.B. How to use retrieval practice to improve learning. (article)
Society for Neuroscience, Brain Facts (2012) Critical Periods in Early Life (Web page) Retrieved from https://brainfacts.org/brain-basics/brain-development/articles/2012/critical-periods-in-early-life/