EDT 8110 - Week #3
Smart Learning Objectives
Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Results-focused - Time-focused
After completing this unit students will be able to the following:
1. Define characteristics of the two systems of cognition, System 1 and System 2
2. List three sensory illusions that can provide false information to the brain.
3. List ten reasons that memory traces may be come distorted.
4. List five methods for receiving feedback on knowledge and abilities.
5. Describe the critical claim that the theories of learning style have failed to demonstrate.
6. Distinguish static testing and dynamic testing and provide an example of each.
Smart Learning Objectives
Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Results-focused - Time-focused
After completing this unit students will be able to the following:
1. Define characteristics of the two systems of cognition, System 1 and System 2
2. List three sensory illusions that can provide false information to the brain.
3. List ten reasons that memory traces may be come distorted.
4. List five methods for receiving feedback on knowledge and abilities.
5. Describe the critical claim that the theories of learning style have failed to demonstrate.
6. Distinguish static testing and dynamic testing and provide an example of each.
Content Summary:
The material in this web page is derived from two sources, the fifth and sixth chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014) and a Youtube video of a presentation by Jeffrey Karpicke (Karpicke, 2013).
The material in this web page is derived from two sources, the fifth and sixth chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014) and a Youtube video of a presentation by Jeffrey Karpicke (Karpicke, 2013).
Chapter 5
Cognitive Science
From an engineer’s viewpoint, humans are black-box machines which receive input (from our senses) and produce an output (actions). Cognitive science is the study of how this black box works. It seeks to explain how our sensory input is analyzed and processed by the brain to create actions. Daniel Kahneman describes two such systems of analysis in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow (referenced by Brown, Roediger III, & McDaniel, 2014). System 1, as he calls it, is a rapid acting, almost reflexive system. It has produced an action even before we are fully conscious of the sensory input. The actions created by System 1 are based on patterns of prior knowledge and memory traces. In contrast, System 2 is a more reasoned system which relies on conscious logic and contemplation to determine the action. System 2 also produces the memory traces and knowledge that System 1 uses to base its actions. To function properly, both systems are dependent on two factors, accurate sensory information and stable and correct memory traces. Unfortunately, our black-boxes may receive faulty sensory information and our memories may be altered over time. Chapter 5 in Make it Stick (Brown et al., 2014) discusses various kinds of sensory errors and cognitive processes which may alter our perceptions and change our memories.
Cognitive Science
From an engineer’s viewpoint, humans are black-box machines which receive input (from our senses) and produce an output (actions). Cognitive science is the study of how this black box works. It seeks to explain how our sensory input is analyzed and processed by the brain to create actions. Daniel Kahneman describes two such systems of analysis in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow (referenced by Brown, Roediger III, & McDaniel, 2014). System 1, as he calls it, is a rapid acting, almost reflexive system. It has produced an action even before we are fully conscious of the sensory input. The actions created by System 1 are based on patterns of prior knowledge and memory traces. In contrast, System 2 is a more reasoned system which relies on conscious logic and contemplation to determine the action. System 2 also produces the memory traces and knowledge that System 1 uses to base its actions. To function properly, both systems are dependent on two factors, accurate sensory information and stable and correct memory traces. Unfortunately, our black-boxes may receive faulty sensory information and our memories may be altered over time. Chapter 5 in Make it Stick (Brown et al., 2014) discusses various kinds of sensory errors and cognitive processes which may alter our perceptions and change our memories.
False sensory information. There are many types of optical, auditory, and tactile illusions which result from our senses sending the wrong information to our brains. For example when looking at a high contrast edge, an area looks slightly darker when it is placed next to a light background and it looks lighter when placed next to a dark background. This is a result of the way the neurons in our retina are connected – they enhance the contrast which enables us to detect edges of objects easier. A more subtle example occurs when listening to two notes which are very close in pitch. We can perceive a third note with a frequency that results from the interaction of these sounds in our ear. Our sense of touch also is not immune to illusions. The receptors for soft touch on our skin are spaced so far apart on our torso that we may not detect when two objects are touching us simultaneously. When these sensory errors are transmitted to our brains, System 1 and System 2 may produce an inappropriate action.
An unfortunate and often fatal situation of faulty sensory information can occur when pilots fly their airplane into clouds. When there is no visible horizon and the aircraft is experiencing moderate jostling due to turbulence, a pilot may become disoriented as to which way is up. As a result, she may decide the instruments on the panel are malfunctioning as a means of filling in the logical gap between the sensory inputs and the readings shown on the gyroscope attitude indicator.
False memory traces. Our memory traces also are vulnerable to errors and distortions. Some of these errors occur as the memory is encoded and created while others may occur following repeated retrieval of the memory.
- Hunger for Narrative is one process that causes memory distortion. We fill in the gaps of our perception to create an explanation of events that we experience. What is filled in can be influenced by previous memories of related experiences.
- Memory Distortion. As a memory trace is repeatedly recalled, new associations are made to other memories and events. Some of the new associations can be assumed and not correct.
- Imagination Inflation. As we imagine or watch an event or witness it taking place, centers in our brain become activated as though we were actually the one involved. For example watching someone pick up a cup activates some of the same brain areas that are activated when we are the one picking up the cup (Society for Neuroscience, Brain Facts, 2008). This may be a part of the reason that the mere mention of something happening may create a “memory” of the event as though we were actually witnessing it ourselves.
- Suggestion. Associations made as information is encoded into memory can be influenced by emotions and other events being witnessed simultaneously.
- Interference. During the process of memory encoding sensory input from unrelated events may be in appropriately mixed in and incorrect associations made to them.
- Curse of Knowledge. As mastery of a subject is developed, the original associations made during the first periods of the learning are made more difficult to retrieve.
- Knew-it-all-along. Think of this as hindsight knowledge. After an event occurs and we look back at the causes, we can convince ourselves that we actually saw the causes leading to the event before it happened.
- Feeling of Knowing. Hearing or reading about an event or an association repeatedly can establish a memory trace that we accept as truth.
- Illusion of Fluency. This is the trap that students fall into when they re-read material for learning. The familiarity of the words breeds the impression that understanding has been achieved. For example, we all know the beginning of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address very fluently. But without stopping to calculate, can you write down the number that is four score and seven?
- False Consensus is the impression that everyone has the same memories that we have and sees things the same way that we do.
Achieving Mastery. A martial artist advances through levels of training by building complex movements and skills from techniques learned earlier. Similarly, mastery of information is built from the layering of new knowledge and their associations into memory. Over time, with accurate sensory input and stable memory traces, Systems 1 and 2 work together to build more and more complex memories. As newly encountered information is encoded and stored, associations to prior knowledge are established. As this proceeds, individual steps in a process are choreographed into a whole action and individual memory traces are combined into a memory model. While this takes place, some of the individual components of the memory are more difficult to distinguish and retrieve explicitly.
Develop Knowledge Insight. Key to continual development of new knowledge is to be aware of what is known and what is not. Studies described by Brown et al. (2014) and discussed in a video by Karpicke (2013) show that individuals typically think they know something better than they actually do. When this occurs, students may not feel the need to work harder. Why would you if you think you already have learned all you need? Thus it is critically important for students to receive accurate feedback about their understanding of a subject. In one study, students who saw they were performing poorly on a logic test improved their subsequent scores after receiving logic training. In addition, their perception of their performance better matched their actual performance after the training.
The martial artist gains insight into their skills through competitions. They will quickly discover, sometimes painfully, when additional training and knowledge is needed. When working to gain knowledge, there are several ways to get feedback on your learning progress to avoid illusions of knowing. The first obvious method is testing yourself. This has the additional advantage of more strongly establishing the ability to retrieve information (See Karpicke, 2013 and Web pages for Week #1). Second, work with others who are learning the same material. Peer-instruction in study groups can calibrate your judgment regarding you level of understanding. Third, be careful to monitor your learning habits. For example, don’t be fooled by fluency and don’t stop self testing a subject too soon. Fourth, encourage others to give honest feedback to you. Your insight should be driven by input from others. Fifth, work in teams with specific expertise represented. And sixth, perform simulations either in your mind or in the real world.
The martial artist gains insight into their skills through competitions. They will quickly discover, sometimes painfully, when additional training and knowledge is needed. When working to gain knowledge, there are several ways to get feedback on your learning progress to avoid illusions of knowing. The first obvious method is testing yourself. This has the additional advantage of more strongly establishing the ability to retrieve information (See Karpicke, 2013 and Web pages for Week #1). Second, work with others who are learning the same material. Peer-instruction in study groups can calibrate your judgment regarding you level of understanding. Third, be careful to monitor your learning habits. For example, don’t be fooled by fluency and don’t stop self testing a subject too soon. Fourth, encourage others to give honest feedback to you. Your insight should be driven by input from others. Fifth, work in teams with specific expertise represented. And sixth, perform simulations either in your mind or in the real world.
Chapter 6
Learning Styles
The issue of learning styles has gained some notoriety in the public eye. However, we may be experiencing the Feeling of Knowing concept described above. A variety of techniques for measuring students’ preferred learning styles have been promoted in media and educational conferences. So much so that they appear to be valid constructs of our learning process. However, the various learning styles are not defined with consistent dimensions. And, more importantly, as Brown et al. (2014) discuss, none have been shown to have a positive effect on learning when students receive training in their preferred style. They fail in the critical claim to show that students learn best when the teaching style matches their learning style. Indeed, data from some studies refute this conjecture.
Learning Styles
The issue of learning styles has gained some notoriety in the public eye. However, we may be experiencing the Feeling of Knowing concept described above. A variety of techniques for measuring students’ preferred learning styles have been promoted in media and educational conferences. So much so that they appear to be valid constructs of our learning process. However, the various learning styles are not defined with consistent dimensions. And, more importantly, as Brown et al. (2014) discuss, none have been shown to have a positive effect on learning when students receive training in their preferred style. They fail in the critical claim to show that students learn best when the teaching style matches their learning style. Indeed, data from some studies refute this conjecture.
Defining Intelligence. Language fluency is an important ability that contributes to better learning. While this can be demonstrated for groups of individuals, there are significant exceptions to this rule. Many top business and military leaders have some degree of language difficulties such as dyslexia. It appears that rather than seeing problems as obstacles, they see them as opportunities. In a sense, they have introspectively calibrated their abilities and developed knowledge insight (see above) to find the means of overcoming the problems.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence test measures an intelligence quotient (IQ) which is the person’s (typically a child’s) age as determined by the score on the test divided by their biological age (×100). While this had been thought to provide a measure of an individual‘s inherent intelligence potential, it is now recognized to show a snapshot of the knowledge and abilities at a fixed time – a static point. The test also focuses on language abilities and logic and can be influenced by the learning environment. What information and knowledge is valued in the family can influence a student’s IQ as measured by this test.
Other descriptors of intelligence have been devised such as “crystallized intelligence” and “fluid intelligence”. The first is a measure of all the information already gained and the latter is a measure of abstract thinking and the ability to see relationships. Brown et al. (2014) describe the work of Howard Gardner who has classified abilities rather than intelligence. He lists eight classifications; logical and mathematical, spatial and visualization, linguistic, kinesthetic (physical control of body and movements), musical, interpersonal (reading others), intrapersonal (reading yourself, insight), naturalistic (relating to and understanding your environment). Robert Steinberg’s classifications of “intelligences” are fewer; analytical (problem solving), creative (using past knowledge in new situations), and practical (seeing what is needed to do).
Many of the intelligence classifications are based on an assessment at a single point in time and thus, provide a static measure. A more favored approach is dynamic testing which measures the ability to assimilate new information. This proceeds via a test–focused learning–retest paradigm. Important in this model is the ability of the instructor to provide accurate feedback and direction for the student prior to and during the focused learning portion of the exercise.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence test measures an intelligence quotient (IQ) which is the person’s (typically a child’s) age as determined by the score on the test divided by their biological age (×100). While this had been thought to provide a measure of an individual‘s inherent intelligence potential, it is now recognized to show a snapshot of the knowledge and abilities at a fixed time – a static point. The test also focuses on language abilities and logic and can be influenced by the learning environment. What information and knowledge is valued in the family can influence a student’s IQ as measured by this test.
Other descriptors of intelligence have been devised such as “crystallized intelligence” and “fluid intelligence”. The first is a measure of all the information already gained and the latter is a measure of abstract thinking and the ability to see relationships. Brown et al. (2014) describe the work of Howard Gardner who has classified abilities rather than intelligence. He lists eight classifications; logical and mathematical, spatial and visualization, linguistic, kinesthetic (physical control of body and movements), musical, interpersonal (reading others), intrapersonal (reading yourself, insight), naturalistic (relating to and understanding your environment). Robert Steinberg’s classifications of “intelligences” are fewer; analytical (problem solving), creative (using past knowledge in new situations), and practical (seeing what is needed to do).
Many of the intelligence classifications are based on an assessment at a single point in time and thus, provide a static measure. A more favored approach is dynamic testing which measures the ability to assimilate new information. This proceeds via a test–focused learning–retest paradigm. Important in this model is the ability of the instructor to provide accurate feedback and direction for the student prior to and during the focused learning portion of the exercise.
Structure Building. Dynamic testing can reveal the cognitive ability for structure building, identifying key information presented in new material and using it to expand the existing framework of knowledge. The important information is threaded into the existing memory model.
Rules and Examples. Cognition can be developed by either memorizing each example of new information or formulating a rule. In example learning, each situation is stored in memory and then retrieved when the same situation occurs later on. Encountering a new situation would require the information be stored before it could be used subsequently. For rule learning, students identify underlying patterns that define similarities and differences of various situations. With this tactic, knowledge of the patterns can be applied to new problems to generate the appropriate response.
Connection to the Field and/or Discipline
Understanding how knowledge is gained and used is important for the educator. Medical students and residents have spent 16 years using methods of learning that may be suboptimal for the expectations of their training program. Therefore classroom activities should be designed and students should be encouraged to adopt methods that are more effective for their learning process.
Understanding how knowledge is gained and used is important for the educator. Medical students and residents have spent 16 years using methods of learning that may be suboptimal for the expectations of their training program. Therefore classroom activities should be designed and students should be encouraged to adopt methods that are more effective for their learning process.
Suggestions for Implementation
Currently the neuroscience class is taught using group learning and peer-instruction in the classroom. This provides several advantages over the standard “death by Power Point” lectures. First students can ascertain their level of knowledge by comparison with their peers. They must work out problems during class time either individually or in groups which strengthens their ability to retrieve information and avoids the curse of knowledge that can afflict their instructors.
To improve on this teaching method, class instruction should be organized to demonstrate the larger structure of scientific and medical knowledge into which each lecture or new bit of information will fit. Body systems are ultimately interconnected even though the medical disciplines are divided by organ (e.g. cardiology, neurology, dermatology). By drawing on information learned about other body systems, students will use retrieval practice with significant interleaving of topics.
The practice of medicine is based on a learning rules rather than examples. While some medical conditions present similarly, each patient is different and many subtleties in the diagnosis can only be ascertained by comparing the patient’s symptoms with a variety of patterns. As a result, the physician typically will initially have three or four potential diagnoses for each patient. The patient will fit each pattern of disease to some degree. By performing additional tests or by evaluating the response to a specific treatment some of the potential diagnoses are eliminated because the patient no longer fits the rule.
Currently the neuroscience class is taught using group learning and peer-instruction in the classroom. This provides several advantages over the standard “death by Power Point” lectures. First students can ascertain their level of knowledge by comparison with their peers. They must work out problems during class time either individually or in groups which strengthens their ability to retrieve information and avoids the curse of knowledge that can afflict their instructors.
To improve on this teaching method, class instruction should be organized to demonstrate the larger structure of scientific and medical knowledge into which each lecture or new bit of information will fit. Body systems are ultimately interconnected even though the medical disciplines are divided by organ (e.g. cardiology, neurology, dermatology). By drawing on information learned about other body systems, students will use retrieval practice with significant interleaving of topics.
The practice of medicine is based on a learning rules rather than examples. While some medical conditions present similarly, each patient is different and many subtleties in the diagnosis can only be ascertained by comparing the patient’s symptoms with a variety of patterns. As a result, the physician typically will initially have three or four potential diagnoses for each patient. The patient will fit each pattern of disease to some degree. By performing additional tests or by evaluating the response to a specific treatment some of the potential diagnoses are eliminated because the patient no longer fits the rule.
Formative Assessment
Spell the correct answer for the questions given in the learning exercise below.
Spell the correct answer for the questions given in the learning exercise below.
References and Additional Reading
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
Karpicke, J. (2013) Conference "Student assessment" (part 1) (video) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CioabgMyFlA
Society for Neuroscience, (2008) BrainFacts Mirror neurons (Web page) Retrieved from http://www.brainfacts.org/brain-basics/neuroanatomy/articles/2008/mirror-neurons/
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
Karpicke, J. (2013) Conference "Student assessment" (part 1) (video) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CioabgMyFlA
Society for Neuroscience, (2008) BrainFacts Mirror neurons (Web page) Retrieved from http://www.brainfacts.org/brain-basics/neuroanatomy/articles/2008/mirror-neurons/