EDT 8110 - Week #2
Smart Learning Objectives
Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Results-focused - Time-focused
After completing this unit students will be able to the following:
1. Name the three mental steps that lead to robust long-term learning
2. List two reasons why mass practice is favored by most students for studying.
3. List two methods for studying which can increase long-term learning beyond what is achieved by mass practice.
Smart Learning Objectives
Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Results-focused - Time-focused
After completing this unit students will be able to the following:
1. Name the three mental steps that lead to robust long-term learning
2. List two reasons why mass practice is favored by most students for studying.
3. List two methods for studying which can increase long-term learning beyond what is achieved by mass practice.
Content Summary:
The material in this web page is derived from two sources, the second and third chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014) and a Youtube video of a presentation by Mark McDaniel (McDaniel, 2015).
The material in this web page is derived from two sources, the second and third chapters of the book, "Make it Stick" by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014) and a Youtube video of a presentation by Mark McDaniel (McDaniel, 2015).
Chapter 3
“Practice makes Perfect”
We’ve heard that phrase used in so many contexts; music lessons, spelling bees, math problems. However, how you practice makes a difference in how perfect you will play, remember, or calculate when it comes time to perform. Unfortunately, the methods that are most often used for practice are probably not the best methods to establish solidified long-term learning (Brown et al., 2014). However, we tend to cling to them. The reasons we continually use less optimum practice methods are two-fold. First, they have been prescribed by the authorities from whom we are learning; our teachers, coaches, parents, and professors (McDaniel, 2015). And second, they “feel” right. That is, at the end of a practice session we can demonstrate that we are performing better than when we started. In reality, the learning we have just done is ephemeral. What we have learned will soon be forgotten.
“Practice makes Perfect”
We’ve heard that phrase used in so many contexts; music lessons, spelling bees, math problems. However, how you practice makes a difference in how perfect you will play, remember, or calculate when it comes time to perform. Unfortunately, the methods that are most often used for practice are probably not the best methods to establish solidified long-term learning (Brown et al., 2014). However, we tend to cling to them. The reasons we continually use less optimum practice methods are two-fold. First, they have been prescribed by the authorities from whom we are learning; our teachers, coaches, parents, and professors (McDaniel, 2015). And second, they “feel” right. That is, at the end of a practice session we can demonstrate that we are performing better than when we started. In reality, the learning we have just done is ephemeral. What we have learned will soon be forgotten.
Mass Practice
The primary method for practice that has been promoted by our teachers is termed Mass Practice. This refers to sessions of continual repetition of the same material. For each attempt, the same or similar problem is presented to the student. After one challenge is completed, it is repeated over and over. By the end of this practice session of cramming the same material, the student can show progress on learning. And, for the student, this method of mass practice works to help them pass the exam, so they feel good about using it. Something has been remembered, but this memory is short-term memory. It will last for a period measured in hours or a few days. We’ve all done it – cramming before the final exam.
The primary method for practice that has been promoted by our teachers is termed Mass Practice. This refers to sessions of continual repetition of the same material. For each attempt, the same or similar problem is presented to the student. After one challenge is completed, it is repeated over and over. By the end of this practice session of cramming the same material, the student can show progress on learning. And, for the student, this method of mass practice works to help them pass the exam, so they feel good about using it. Something has been remembered, but this memory is short-term memory. It will last for a period measured in hours or a few days. We’ve all done it – cramming before the final exam.
The Alternative
Research in the laboratory and classroom has shown there are better and more efficient methods to practice which enhance long-term learning (Brown et al., 2014; McDaniel, 2015). Two of these methods are described below.
Spaced practice refers to spacing the practice sessions over time so that a certain amount of forgetting takes place in between them. It seems that because there is additional effort to retrieve the information from memory, the memory itself becomes more consolidated. In effect, this interrupts forgetting. To the student, this method feels slower and less productive. It may appear like they are just relearning what they already know. The reality is by recalling what they have learned, they are strengthening associations of the new learned information memory to other memory traces. This will make it easier to retrieve later on.
Interleaving practice is a variant of spaced practice. In this method lessons are divided into smaller blocks with lessons of different material placed in between the blocks. Students must shift from one subject to another and then back again. When they begin the second lesson block they must put in some effort to recall what they were told to learn in the first block. Moving between different subjects or different challenges may feel less productive for the student because it may seem like insufficient time is spent on any one subject to learn it well. However, as described above, the forced retrieval which occurs each time the subject block comes up will serve to consolidate the information and facilitate future recall.
Varied practice describes a method of trying the learning task in slightly different ways. Students find they are more challenged by subtle changes in the task and again, may feel like they don’t spend enough time on the same task to learn it well. The cognitive challenge of varying the parameters of the practice leads to broader mastery of the material and develops discrimination skills (Brown et al., 2014). Students learn what is similar and different for closely related tasks. As a result, their knowledge moves from a factual context for a single problem to a conceptual context of all related problems.
Research in the laboratory and classroom has shown there are better and more efficient methods to practice which enhance long-term learning (Brown et al., 2014; McDaniel, 2015). Two of these methods are described below.
Spaced practice refers to spacing the practice sessions over time so that a certain amount of forgetting takes place in between them. It seems that because there is additional effort to retrieve the information from memory, the memory itself becomes more consolidated. In effect, this interrupts forgetting. To the student, this method feels slower and less productive. It may appear like they are just relearning what they already know. The reality is by recalling what they have learned, they are strengthening associations of the new learned information memory to other memory traces. This will make it easier to retrieve later on.
Interleaving practice is a variant of spaced practice. In this method lessons are divided into smaller blocks with lessons of different material placed in between the blocks. Students must shift from one subject to another and then back again. When they begin the second lesson block they must put in some effort to recall what they were told to learn in the first block. Moving between different subjects or different challenges may feel less productive for the student because it may seem like insufficient time is spent on any one subject to learn it well. However, as described above, the forced retrieval which occurs each time the subject block comes up will serve to consolidate the information and facilitate future recall.
Varied practice describes a method of trying the learning task in slightly different ways. Students find they are more challenged by subtle changes in the task and again, may feel like they don’t spend enough time on the same task to learn it well. The cognitive challenge of varying the parameters of the practice leads to broader mastery of the material and develops discrimination skills (Brown et al., 2014). Students learn what is similar and different for closely related tasks. As a result, their knowledge moves from a factual context for a single problem to a conceptual context of all related problems.
Utilizing spaced practice and varied practice will broaden the knowledge beyond the context and environment in which it was learned (Brown et al., 2014; McDaniel, 2015). This will lead the student to better mastery of the material. Students still must practice things already known (to maintain the retrieval process) while varying the practice with new information or tasks. In addition, the learning that takes place in the classroom or practice environment must be applied practically. For this, mental recall before performing the task and reflection afterward will further solidify the memory.
As an example of varied practice, one can imagine a basketball player working on free throws. He/she may stand at the foul line on their home court and sink 90% of their shots during team practice day after day. With each practice session they are retrieving from memory what they did previously and solidifying that memory trace. However, all this practice is occurring in one situation. It will be a very different environment during a game on an opponent’s court. All the sensory cues which the player has used to associate with the correct technique for success will be dissimilar. The lighting will be different. The backboard will be a different shape, size and may respond differently when the ball hits it; not to mention the crowd noise. The player who has mastered this task will have practiced free throws in a variety of basketball courts under a range of conditions. This broader conceptual knowledge will permit him/her to choose the correct associations for success.
As an example of varied practice, one can imagine a basketball player working on free throws. He/she may stand at the foul line on their home court and sink 90% of their shots during team practice day after day. With each practice session they are retrieving from memory what they did previously and solidifying that memory trace. However, all this practice is occurring in one situation. It will be a very different environment during a game on an opponent’s court. All the sensory cues which the player has used to associate with the correct technique for success will be dissimilar. The lighting will be different. The backboard will be a different shape, size and may respond differently when the ball hits it; not to mention the crowd noise. The player who has mastered this task will have practiced free throws in a variety of basketball courts under a range of conditions. This broader conceptual knowledge will permit him/her to choose the correct associations for success.
Chapter 4
Learning in three easy steps
Robust long-term learning is achieved by executing three mental steps; encoding, consolidation, and retrieval (Brown et al., 2014),
Encoding is the first step that occurs after sensory input is received by the nervous system. Signals from the eyes, ears, muscle sensors and other organs become a mental representation in the neurons and glial cells of our brain. These are the memory traces that are created in short-term memory.
Consolidation occurs when the new learning (which is labile) is moved to more stabilized memory traces. This process may take hours or days. During this consolidation process, a recoding occurs and associations of the new memory are made to past experiences. Thus, prior knowledge is sometimes needed to make sense of the new information. Where knowledge is lacking, the nervous system may fill in the blank spaces by extrapolating to the closest knowledge available. This tendency of our mind to “make up” things we can’t explain can frustrate trial judges who must ascertain which conflicting eyewitness testimony represents reality.
Retrieval is a final phase of achieving robust learning. This is represented by the practice and drills which require recalling the memory trace. During the retrieval process, the memory trace is recoded into long-term memory and is assigned to new or additional associations to information and memories that are already known.
Learning in three easy steps
Robust long-term learning is achieved by executing three mental steps; encoding, consolidation, and retrieval (Brown et al., 2014),
Encoding is the first step that occurs after sensory input is received by the nervous system. Signals from the eyes, ears, muscle sensors and other organs become a mental representation in the neurons and glial cells of our brain. These are the memory traces that are created in short-term memory.
Consolidation occurs when the new learning (which is labile) is moved to more stabilized memory traces. This process may take hours or days. During this consolidation process, a recoding occurs and associations of the new memory are made to past experiences. Thus, prior knowledge is sometimes needed to make sense of the new information. Where knowledge is lacking, the nervous system may fill in the blank spaces by extrapolating to the closest knowledge available. This tendency of our mind to “make up” things we can’t explain can frustrate trial judges who must ascertain which conflicting eyewitness testimony represents reality.
Retrieval is a final phase of achieving robust learning. This is represented by the practice and drills which require recalling the memory trace. During the retrieval process, the memory trace is recoded into long-term memory and is assigned to new or additional associations to information and memories that are already known.
To Remember, we Must Forget
While establishing long-term memories of new information, associations may be made to previous memories (Brown et al., 2014). This may weaken their associations, making it seem as though they have been forgotten. In fact, memory of the past remains as a memory trace and can be re-established to its associations in the correct context.
Harder is better
B.F. Skinner, a psychologist and Harvard University professor promoted the concept in the 1950s and 1960s that errors made during learning resulted in the errors remaining in memory (Brown et al., 2014). His philosophy for learning was to make it as easy as possible for the student so that no errors would be made at any time. As a result, some teaching methods were developed which had the effect of giving students a fear of failure. This fear, in turn, actually retarded learning due to the anxiety that it produced. A more modern view, based on research in the laboratory and classroom holds that difficulties encountered during learning will result in stronger memory traces (Brown et al., 2014). This can occur by several mechanisms.
While establishing long-term memories of new information, associations may be made to previous memories (Brown et al., 2014). This may weaken their associations, making it seem as though they have been forgotten. In fact, memory of the past remains as a memory trace and can be re-established to its associations in the correct context.
Harder is better
B.F. Skinner, a psychologist and Harvard University professor promoted the concept in the 1950s and 1960s that errors made during learning resulted in the errors remaining in memory (Brown et al., 2014). His philosophy for learning was to make it as easy as possible for the student so that no errors would be made at any time. As a result, some teaching methods were developed which had the effect of giving students a fear of failure. This fear, in turn, actually retarded learning due to the anxiety that it produced. A more modern view, based on research in the laboratory and classroom holds that difficulties encountered during learning will result in stronger memory traces (Brown et al., 2014). This can occur by several mechanisms.
- Difficulties encountered during learning which require the student to recall information will reconsolidate that information by reinforcing connections to what is already known.
- In varied practice, separate, but closely related information will generate separate memory traces which are the built into a more general memory model.
- By providing similar information in different contexts, a broader understanding and mastery of information will develop.
- Mastery of information is attained through the development of conceptual generalizations which can be applied outside of the context in which it was learned.
- Generative learning, or struggling for a solution prior to learning the means to find the answer primes the mind to accept the correct solution and establish relevant associations to existing knowledge.
Enhancing learning through difficulties
Studies have shown that reading text which has been modified by rendering it out of focus or removing letters from words results in greater learning (Brown et al., 2014). This probably has limited value as a teaching tool due to the increased eye strain it would cause. However, as we have already discussed, other methods exist which are more palatable. For example, mix up the order of the blocks of learning and testing so that different retrieval tasks come as a surprise for the student. Have students practice reflection by asking them to review problems and solutions mentally and without hints or clues. Finally, have students write down what they have in their minds. All of these methods force students to retrieve and thereby consolidate memory traces they have stored in the past.
Studies have shown that reading text which has been modified by rendering it out of focus or removing letters from words results in greater learning (Brown et al., 2014). This probably has limited value as a teaching tool due to the increased eye strain it would cause. However, as we have already discussed, other methods exist which are more palatable. For example, mix up the order of the blocks of learning and testing so that different retrieval tasks come as a surprise for the student. Have students practice reflection by asking them to review problems and solutions mentally and without hints or clues. Finally, have students write down what they have in their minds. All of these methods force students to retrieve and thereby consolidate memory traces they have stored in the past.
Suggestions for Implementation
Medical students and residents in training are faced with a variety of patient encounters each time they are on clinical service. The next patient will likely be very different from the previous one – especially in the emergency department. This in itself promotes long-term learning since the information that must be remembered for each patient’s diagnosis and treatment will force retrieval of learned information. Nevertheless, attending physicians who are responsible for bedside teaching must avoid having their trainees fall into patterns of familiarity. A physician may treat many injured ankles or sore throats each clinical shift, and while each may appear similar, in fact each is different. By focusing on the differences in each patient, the attending physician can help the trainee develop a level of mastery. Subtle differences between patients complaints and history may give clues regarding which ankle requires a splint and which can be dealt with with anti-inflammatory drugs or other treatments.
Medical students and residents in training are faced with a variety of patient encounters each time they are on clinical service. The next patient will likely be very different from the previous one – especially in the emergency department. This in itself promotes long-term learning since the information that must be remembered for each patient’s diagnosis and treatment will force retrieval of learned information. Nevertheless, attending physicians who are responsible for bedside teaching must avoid having their trainees fall into patterns of familiarity. A physician may treat many injured ankles or sore throats each clinical shift, and while each may appear similar, in fact each is different. By focusing on the differences in each patient, the attending physician can help the trainee develop a level of mastery. Subtle differences between patients complaints and history may give clues regarding which ankle requires a splint and which can be dealt with with anti-inflammatory drugs or other treatments.
Formative Assessment
Provide the best term for the definitions given in the learning exercise below.
Provide the best term for the definitions given in the learning exercise below.
References and Additional Reading
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
McDaniel, M.A. (2015) Making learning stick: Evidence and insights to improve teaching and learning (Video file) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=japP8Cr0q6g
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press.
McDaniel, M.A. (2015) Making learning stick: Evidence and insights to improve teaching and learning (Video file) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=japP8Cr0q6g